Chemistry
Welcome
Book Features
Structured Learning Approach
1
Liquids and Solids
1.1
Intermolecular Forces
1.2
Viscosity
1.3
Capillary Action
1.4
Surface Tension
1.5
Phase Transitions
1.6
Phase Diagrams
1.7
Vapor Pressure
1.8
Heating Curves
1.9
Solids
1.9.1
Unit Cells
1.9.2
Equivalent Atoms
1.9.3
Empirical Formula
1.10
Timed Assessments
1.10.1
Enthalpy of Vaporization
1.10.2
Clausius-Clapeyron
1.10.3
Heating Curves
1.10.4
Phase Diagrams
1.11
Practice Problems
2
Solutions
2.1
“Like Dissolves Like”
2.2
Van’t Hoff Factor
2.3
Electrolytes
2.4
Formation of Solutions
2.5
Saturation
2.6
Solubility
2.7
Concentration Units
2.8
Concentration Conversions
2.9
Solubility of Gases
2.9.1
Henry’s Law
2.10
Solubility of Inorganics
2.10.1
Solubility Rules
2.10.2
Alkali compounds
2.10.3
Ammonium
2.10.4
Binary Metal/Halogen Compounds
2.10.5
Binary Alkaline Compounds
2.10.6
Some Sulfates
2.10.7
Some Hydroxides
2.11
Solubility of Organics
2.11.1
Aliphatic Hydrocarbons
2.11.2
Alcohols
2.11.3
Aromatic Compounds
2.11.4
Functionalized Aromatics
2.12
Colligative Properties
2.12.1
Vapor Pressure Lowering
2.12.2
Freezing Point Depression
2.12.3
Boiling Point Elevation
2.12.4
Osmotic Pressure
2.13
Timed Assessments
2.13.1
Concentration Units
2.13.2
Henry’s Law
2.13.3
Colligative Properties
2.13.4
Osmotic Pressure
2.14
Practice Problems
3
Kinetics
3.1
Average Rate
3.1.1
General Expression
3.2
Instantaneous Rate
3.3
Rate Law
3.3.1
Order of Reaction Terminology
3.3.2
Method of Initial Rates
3.3.3
Rate Constant,
k
3.3.4
Rate Constant Units and Order
3.4
Integrated Rate Law
3.4.1
First-order Integrated Rate Law
3.4.2
Zeroth-order Integrated Rate Law
3.4.3
Second-order Integrated Rate Law
3.5
Half-life
3.6
Arrhenius Equation
3.7
Collision Theory
3.8
Reaction Mechanisms
3.9
Catalysis
3.10
Deep-Dive: NO
2
Reaction
3.10.1
Experimental Data
3.10.2
Rate Constant
3.10.3
Rate Law
3.10.4
Integrated Rate Law
3.10.5
Half-life
3.10.6
Free energy of reaction
3.10.7
Energy Diagram
3.10.8
Equilibrium Constant,
K
p
3.10.9
Equilibrium Constant,
K
c
3.10.10
Summary of Data
3.10.11
Equilibrium
3.11
Timed Assessments
3.11.1
Reaction Rates
3.11.2
Method of Initial Rates
3.11.3
Integrated Rate Laws
3.11.4
Half-life
3.11.5
Arrhenius Equation
3.12
Practice Problems
4
Equilibrium
4.1
Equilibrium Constant
4.2
Equilibrium Expression
4.2.1
Gaseous Reactions
4.2.2
Pressure to concentration relation
4.3
Reaction Quotient
4.4
Visualizing
Q
and
K
4.5
Solving Equilibrium Problems
4.5.1
ICE Table
4.5.2
Example 1
4.5.3
Example 2
4.5.4
Example 3
4.5.5
Example 4
4.6
Le Chatelier’s Principle
4.6.1
Changing Concentrations
4.6.2
Changing Temperature
4.6.3
Changing Volume/Pressure
4.6.4
Adding a Catalyst
4.7
Transforming K
4.8
Solubility Product,
K
sp
4.8.1
Aqueous solubility of AgCl(
s
)
4.9
Practice Problems
5
Acid-Base Equilibria
5.1
Acid-Base Ionization Reactions
5.2
Acid-Base Relationships
5.3
Auto-ionization of Water
5.4
pH and pOH
5.5
Percent Ionization
5.6
pH or pOH of Acid/Base Aqueous Solutions
5.6.1
Strong Acid
5.6.2
Weak Acid
5.6.3
Strong Base
5.6.4
Weak Base
5.7
Oxyacids
5.7.1
Oxidation State
5.7.2
Electronegativity of Central Atom
5.7.3
Polyprotic oxyacids
5.8
Salt Hydrolysis
5.8.1
Acidic Salts
5.8.2
Basic Salts
5.8.3
Neutral Salts
5.8.4
Acidic Metal Hydrides
5.8.5
Summary
5.9
Buffer
5.9.1
Weak Acid and Salt
5.9.2
Weak Acid and Strong Base
5.9.3
Weak Base and Salt
5.9.4
Weak Base and Strong Acid
5.9.5
Resisting a change in pH
5.9.6
Buffer Capacity
5.10
Titration Curves
5.10.1
Strong Acid + Strong Base
5.10.2
Weak Acid + Strong Base
5.10.3
Strong Base + Strong Acid
5.10.4
Weak Base + Strong Acid
5.10.5
Diprotic Species
5.10.6
Triprotic Species
5.11
Calculating pH During Titration
5.11.1
Strong Acid/Strong Base
5.11.2
Weak Acid/Strong Base
5.11.3
Practice
5.12
Timed Assessments
5.12.1
pH and pOH
5.12.2
Titrations
5.13
Practice Problems
6
Other Equilibria
6.1
Solubility and Equilibrium
6.1.1
Example 1: AgCl
6.1.2
Exmaple 2: PbCl
2
6.1.3
Exmaple 3: Ag
2
SO
4
6.2
Common Ion
6.2.1
Example 1: AgCl
6.2.2
Exmaple 2: PbCl
2
6.2.3
Exmaple 3: Ag
2
SO
4
6.2.4
Summary
6.3
Formation Constant
6.3.1
Silver(I) diammine cation, Ag(NH
3
)
2
+
6.4
Practice Problems
7
Thermodynamics
7.1
Entropy
7.1.1
Uniform Distribution of Energy and Matter
7.1.2
Predicting Entropy Changes
7.2
Gibbs Energy
7.2.1
Effect of Enthalpy and Entropy
7.2.2
Entropy vs Free Energy
7.3
Driving Force
7.3.1
Enthalpy
7.3.2
Entropy
7.3.3
Gibbs Energy
7.4
Practice Problems
8
Electrochemistry
8.1
Oxidation numbers
8.2
Balancing Redox Reactions
8.3
Galvanic Cell
8.3.1
Cell Notation
8.4
Movement of Charge
8.4.1
Water Analogy
8.4.2
Faraday’s Constant
8.5
Cell Potential
8.5.1
Standard Cell Potential
8.5.2
Standard Hydrogen Electrode (SHE)
8.6
Cell Potential Relationships
8.6.1
Δ
G
° and
K
8.6.2
E
°
cell
and Δ
G
8.6.3
E
°
cell
and
K
8.7
Nernst Equation
8.7.1
Example: Computing a nonstandard reduction potential
8.8
Concentration Cell
8.9
Electrolytic Cell
8.10
Quantitative Electrochemistry
8.10.1
Example: Current and time to mass
8.10.2
Example: Current and time to mass
8.10.3
Example: Mass and current to time
8.10.4
Example: Mass and time to current
8.11
Practice Problems
9
Nuclear Chemistry
9.1
Atomic structure notation
9.2
Radioactive Decay Processes
9.2.1
Particles involved in nuclear reactions
9.2.2
Alpha (α) Decay
9.2.3
Beta (β
–
) Decay
9.2.4
Positron Emission (β
+
Decay)
9.2.5
Electron Capture
9.2.6
Gamma Ray Emission
9.3
Nuclear Kinetics
9.3.1
First-order Rate Law
9.3.2
First-order Integrated Rate Law
9.3.3
First-order Half-Life
9.3.4
Radioactive Half-life
9.3.5
Example: First-order kinetics
9.4
Stability of Nuclei
9.4.1
Belt of Stability
9.5
Mass Defect and Energy
9.5.1
Mass defect in nuclear reactions
9.5.2
Mass defect in chemical reactions
9.5.3
Fusion
9.5.4
Fission
9.6
Practice Problems
References
Appendix
A
Symbols, Notation, and Units
A.1
Base SI Units
A.2
Derived SI Units
A.3
Metric Prefixes
A.4
Gas Constants
B
Periodic Table
B.1
Categories
B.1.1
Block
B.1.2
Classification
B.1.3
Phase
B.1.4
Gas Phase Type
B.1.5
Magnetic Type
B.1.6
Electrical Type
B.1.7
Decay Mode
B.2
Properties
B.2.1
Atomic Radius
B.2.2
Boiling Point
B.2.3
Density
B.2.4
Electron Affinity
B.2.5
Electronegativity
B.2.6
Half-life
B.2.7
Heat of Fusion
B.2.8
Heat of Vaporization
B.2.9
Ionic Radius (Effective)
B.2.10
Ionization Energy (First)
B.2.11
Ionization Energy (Second)
B.2.12
Ionization Energy (Third)
B.2.13
Melting Point
B.2.14
Percent in Earth’s Crust
B.2.15
Percent in Humans
B.2.16
Percent in Meteorites
B.2.17
Percent in Oceans
B.2.18
Percent in Sun
B.2.19
Percent in Universe
B.2.20
Specific Heat
B.2.21
Thermal Conductivity
B.2.22
Van der Waals Radius
C
Mathematical Functions
C.1
Polynomials
C.2
Exponentials
C.3
Logarithms
D
SI Units and Conversions
E
Useful Resources
F
Standard State of Elements
G
Standard Thermodynamic Values for Select Substances
H
Standard Reduction Potentials (by name)
I
Standard Reduction Potentials (by potential)
J
NIST-JANAF
J.1
Water, H
2
O(
l
)
J.2
Water, H
2
O(
g
)
J.3
Hydronium ion, H
3
O
+
(
g
)
J.4
Hydroxyl ion, OH
–
(
g
)
J.5
Nitrogen dioxide, NO
2
(
g
)
J.6
Nitrogen oxide, NO(
g
)
J.7
Nitrogen oxide, N
2
O
4
(
g
)
J.8
Oxygen, O
2
(
g
)
Glossary
A
Acid
Acid-Base Reaction
Acidic Salt
Activation Energy
Activity
Activity Coefficient
Activity Series
Adhesive Force
Alcohol
Alkaline
Alloy
Alpha Decay
Alpha Particle
Analytical Chemistry
Angular Momentum
Antimatter
Aqueous Solution
Arrhenius Equation
Atom
Atomic Number
Attractive Forces
Avogadro’s Number
B
Base
Basic Salt
Beer’s Law
Beta Decay
Beta Particle
Binding Energy
Biochemistry
Blackbody Radiation
Boiling Point
Boiling Point Elevation
Boltzmann Constant
Bond
Buffer
C
Calorie
Capillary Action
Carbohydrate
Catalyst
Cell Potential
Chemical Bond
Chemical Energy
Chemical Kinetics
Chemical Potential
Chemistry
Colligative Properties
Colloid
Cohesive Force
Clausius-Clapeyron Equation
Collision Theory
Compound
Computational Chemistry
Concentration
Concentration Cell
Condensation
Conjugate Acid
Conjugate Base
Coulomb Force
Covalent Bond
Crystal
Crystal Lattice
Current
D
Density
Deposition
Derived Units
Dimensional Analysis
Dipole
Dissolution
E
Effective Collisions
Electrical Conductivity
Electrical Energy
Electrical Force
Electricity
Electrochemical Cell
Electrochemistry
Electrolytic Cell
Electrode
Electrolyte
Electromagnetic Energy
Electromagnetic Force
Electromagnetic Radiation
Electromotive Force
Electroplating
Electron
Electron Cloud
Electrostatic Force
Element
Endergonic
Endothermic
Exergonic
Exothermic
Energy
Energy Level
Enthalpy
Entropy
Enzyme
Equilibrium
Equilibrium Constant
Equilibrium Expression
Evaporation
F
Faraday’s Constant
First-Order Integrated Rate Law
First-Order Reaction
Fission
Force
Free Energy
Freezing Point
Freezing Point Depression
Frequency Factor
Fugacity
Fundamental Force
Fusion
G
J.8.1
g/100g {- #glo-g/100g}
Galvanic Cell
Gamma Decay
Gamma Ray
Gas
Gas Constant
Gibbs-Duhem Equation
Gibbs Free Energy
Gravitational Force
H
Haber-Bosch Process
Half-Cell
Half-Life
Heat
Heat Capacity
Heating Curve
Heat of Fusion
Heat of Vaporization
Heat Transfer
Helmholtz Free Energy
Henry’s Law
Hess’s Law
Hydrocarbon
Hydrogen Bond
Hyperconjugation
I
Ideal Behavior
Ideal Gas
Ideal Solution
Inorganic Chemistry
Inorganic Compound
Integrated Rate Law
Intermediate
Intermolecular Forces
Internal Energy
Intramolecular Forces
Ion
Ionic Bond
Ionic Compound
Ionizing Radiation
Isotope
J
Joule
K
Kinetic Energy
Kinetics
L
Law of Conservation of Energy
Law of Conservation of Mass
J.8.2
Law of Constant Heat Summation
Law of Mass-Energy Equivalence
Le Chatelier’s Principle
Lewis Structure
Light
Liquid
London Dispersion
M
Magnetic Moment
Mass
Mass Fraction
Matter
Melting Point
Metal
Metal Oxide
Microstate
Miscible
Mixture
Molality
Molarity
Mole
Mole Fraction
Molecule
N
Nernst Equation
Neutral Salt
Neutron
Normality
Nuclear Chemistry
Nuclear Force
O
Orbital
Organic Chemistry
Organic Compound
Osmotic Pressure
Oxidation
Oxidation State
Oxidation-Reduction Reaction
P
Parts per
Periodic Table
pH
Phase Diagram
Phase Transition
Photoelectric Effect
Photon
Physical Chemistry
Planck’s Constant
Planck’s Law
Polar
Polymer
Positron
Positron Emission
Potential Energy
Potential Energy Surface
Precipitation
Pre-Exponential Factor
Pressure
Proton
Q
Quantum Mechanics
Quantum Numbers
R
Radiant Energy
Radiation
Radioactive Decay
Raoult’s Law
Rate Constant
Reaction Rate
Reaction Quotient
Redox
Reduction
Repulsive Force
Resonance
S
Salt
Saturated Solution
Schrödinger Equation
Second-Order Integrated Rate Law
Second-Order Reaction
Semiconductor
Semipermeable Membrane
SI Units
Solid
Solubility
Solubility Product
Solute
Solution
Solvent
Specific Heat Capacity
Speed of Light
Spontaneity
Standard State
State Function
State of Matter
Statistical Mechanics
Strong Acid
Strong Base
Strong Nuclear Force
Subatomic Particle
Sublimation
Sugar
Surface Tension
Suspension
T
Temperature
Thermal Energy
Thermodynamic Properties
Thermochemistry
Thermodynamics
Titration
Total Energy
Transition State
U
Ultraviolet Catastrophe
Unit Cell
Universal Gas Constant
Universal Solvent
V
Valence Electron
Van’t Hoff Factor
Vapor
Vapor Pressure
Vapor Pressure Lowering
Volatile Compound
Volume
Volt
Voltaic Cell
Voltammetry
W
Water
Weak Acid
Weak Base
Weak Nuclear Force
Work
X
X-Ray
Z
Zeroth-Order Integrated Rate Law
Zeroth-Order Reaction
Eric Van Dornshuld, PhD
Chemistry
2.5
Saturation
Unsaturated solution
– can dissolve more solute
Saturated solution
– cannot dissolve more solute (at constant
T
)
Supersaturated
– unstable